Faith setting of Shakespeare's plays

Although Shakespeare was almost certainly a Christian (and in any case would have had to attend church by law) not all his plays are set in a Christian world.

Differing faith settings

Shakespeare’s Roman plays, such as Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra are set in a world where people believe in ancient pagan gods such as Jupiter. The same pagan world is the background to King Lear. In these plays there is no suggestion of a life after death, whereas those set in a Christian universe strongly present the ideas of heaven, hell and judgement (see Themes and significant ideas: Heaven, hell and judgement).
Some plays present a mixed set of beliefs, for example The Winter’s Tale, where pagan gods are mentioned alongside a reference to Whitsun, a Christian festival.
It is very important that Shakespeare consciously chooses to set plays such as Macbeth, Othello and Hamlet in a Christian universe, because what may happen to characters after death is as much an issue in these plays as what happens to them in life. It is significant when the characters in a play are conscious of sin and of God’s judgement whereby they will go to heaven, hell or purgatory after death.

Biblical allusions

The Authorised Version of the Bible (sometimes called the King James Bible after the monarch who authorised it) was familiar to Christians from its publication in 1611 until the middle of the 20th century. Its language is very close to that of the slightly earlier translation of the Bible known to Shakespeare and his audience prior to 1611 (called The Great Bible).

Shakespeare often echos the language of the Bible. For example, when he describes Christmas as being a 'hallowed' and 'gracious' time: The word ‘hallowed’ means holy and would be particularly familiar to Shakespeare’s audience as it occurs at the beginning of the prayer known as the ‘Lord’s Prayer’. The well-known Prayer Book version is adapted from Matthew’s Gospel 6:9, and starts:

‘Our Father, which art in Heaven, hallowed be Thy name’.

The word ‘gracious’ refers to grace — the undeserved forgiveness, and gifts, of God — which is an important concept in many of Shakespeare’s plays. (See Big ideas: Forgiveness, mercy and grace.)

Shakespeare would have assumed that his audience all knew, and believed, a variety of Christian teachings and practices.

Heaven, hell and judgement

Life after death

The Soul

Christians believe that they have an immortal soul. In other words, a human being does not simply consist of a body which will die, but also has a spirit which will live on for eternity after the death of the body.

Judgement

Christians also believe that, after death, all humans will be judged by God according to their actions on this earth. Because of the religious turmoil which had taken place in England just before and during Shakespeare’s lifetime, beliefs would differ about what might happen after God’s judgement.

For Shakepeare's audience, there were three possible after-life existences: heaven, hell and purgatory.

Heaven

Christians believe that heaven is a place of eternal joy, where God is enthroned and surrounded by angels — creatures of pure spirit who act as God’s messengers to earth. It is depicted as a place of shining light and great beauty: the most famous vision of the Christian heaven is in the last book of the Bible, Revelation. No human being deserves to enter heaven because all are guilty of sin (see Imagery and symbolism: The Fall and original sin). However, the Bible teaches that those who repent of their wrong attitudes and actions, put their faith in the fact that Christ’s death has saved them and seek to live in obedience to God while on earth, will spend eternity in heaven with him (see Themes: Mercy and forgiveness, and also Grace).

Purgatory

However, according to a play like Hamlet, there is also a place called purgatory — a place between heaven and hell where the souls of those who are not damned, but who are not yet fit for heaven, may go to be purged, or purified, of sin (though this idea is not found in the Bible).

The Elizabethan attitude to purgatory

Not all Christians of Shakespeare’s time believed in purgatory. In his critical discussion, ‘What happens in Hamlet’, Dover Wilson sums up Elizabethan belief as follows:

‘Before the the belief in their existence [i.e. ghosts] … had offered little intellectual difficulty to the ordinary man, since the doctrine of purgatory afforded a complete explanation … Thus most Catholics of Shakespeare’s day believed that ghosts might be the spirits of the departed, allowed to return from purgatory for some special purpose … But for Protestants the matter was not so easy … for purgatory being an exploded tradition, the dead went either direct to bliss in heaven or prison in hell ... the orthodox Protestant conclusion was that ghosts … were generally nothing but devils.’ (See Religious/philosophical context: The Reformation).

The Ghost of Old Hamlet describes purgatory as a place of imprisonment and torment:

‘Doom’d for a certain term to walk the night,
And for the day confin’d to fast in fires,
Till the foul crimes done in my days of nature
Are burnt and purged away. But that I am forbid
To tell the secrets of my prison-house,
I could a tale unfold whose lightest word
Would harrow up thy soul, freeze thy young blood ...’

The Ghost is in purgatory because, although he was a generally virtuous man, he was murdered before he had time to repent of the sins of which, as a human being, he was inevitably guilty.

Hell

The Bible taught that those who had rejected Jesus on earth, and were guilty of evil acts of which they did not repent, would be condemned by the judgement of God to hell — a place of eternal separation from God and thus eternal torments (far worse than those believed to take place in purgatory).

Although the Bible does not provide a detailed description of hell, Christian tradition has included the following beliefs:

Hell is a place of fire and suffering.
Hell is the abode of devils and demons — evil spirits (traditionally, angels who have rebelled against God). These devils torment souls in hell, and also tempt humans on earth
Hell is the home of Satan, the chief evil spirit, whose name means ‘enemy’ (as he is the enemy of God and of humankind).

For further information see Big ideas: Devils.

Mercy and forgiveness

With death an ever present reality in Elizabethan life, it is no wonder that there was such a preoccupation with what happened to people when they died. People's fears were focused on the torments of punishment, but the influence of the Reformation meant that there was also a clearer understanding of God's grace and the possibility of forgiveness.

Changing emphasis

The Bible states that God, who created the world and entrusted its care to humankind, will judge all according to the way they have lived:

The Old Testament frequently shows God punishing individuals for sinful behaviour
However, both the Old Testament and the New Testament also show God offering mercy and the possibility of repentance and forgiveness, even when individuals or nations have previously ignored and refused to obey him. In the New Testament, God’s love is emphasized as he is shown sending his son Jesus to die on the cross, making the sacrifice necessary to wipe out, or redeem, people’s sins and making forgiveness and a new start available to all.
It was this which particularly inspired Reformers like Martin Luther, whose writings had a huge influence.

Confession and repentance

In order to gain forgiveness, according to Christian belief, individuals needed to recognize their failure to live in obedience to God, confess their sins, and repent (turn their back on that way of living), thus accepting the forgiveness and new life made possible through the death and resurrection of Jesus. In response to true repentance, God washes away all guilt of sin.

Justice and mercy

According to the Bible, since all people are in need God’s grace and forgiveness, so all should show forgiveness to others in their turn. In many of his plays, Shakespeare illustrates that those who judge others harshly may expect to be so judged themselves.

Shakespeare’s play The Merchant of Venice deals with the themes of justice versus mercy. Disguised as a lawyer, Portia faces Shylock, who wants strict justice, and scornfully asks what can force him to show mercy. Portia tells him:

The quality of mercy is not strain’d,
It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven
Upon the place beneath: it is twice blest,
It blesseth him that gives and him that takes,
‘Tis mightiest in the mightiest, it becomes
The throned monarch better than his crown …
But mercy is above this sceptred sway,
It is enthroned in the heart of kings,
It is an attribute of God himself,
And earthly power doth then show likest God’s
When mercy seasons justice.

Vengeance

Vengeance forbidden

Vengeance, or revenge — the taking of retribution for a perceived injustice or harmful act — is directly opposed to ideas of mercy, forgiveness and grace. Consequently, in Christian theology, it is seen as entirely the wrong response to an injury. Although the phrase from the Old Testament, ‘an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth’ is well-known, by contrast in many places in the New Testament the followers of Christ are told to forgive and not to seek revenge:

In Luke 6:27-29 Jesus says:

‘Love your enemies, do good to them which hate you ... pray for them which despitefully use you. And unto him that smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also the other.’ AV

In Chapter 12 of a letter written by Paul to the Romans, he tells them:

‘Recompense no man evil for evil … Avenge not yourselves ... for it is written, ‘vengeance is mine; I will repay’ saith the Lord.’ (Romans 12:17-19) AV

Prayer

What is Christian prayer?

To pray is to enter into a two-way conversation with God, sometimes using words, sometimes in silent thought. Prayers are often requests, but may also be in praise and worship of God, saying sorry or thank you, as well as meditations. Traditionally, Christians have kneeled to pray, since kneeling before one’s ruler was a sign of respect. See Big ideas: Prayer.

The Prayer Book

In sixteenth century England, English became the language of worship in churches, replacing Latin. A new book of prayers and services of worship, which simplified and translated the Latin services, was drawn up by Archbishop Cranmer. (For further detail, see Social/political context: Protestant versus Catholic.)

This Book of Common Prayer was used in all church services at the time Shakespeare was writing.

Mass and Holy Communion

Celebrating the Last Supper

The most important religious service for Christians is known as the mass, the eucharist or holy communion. It commemorates the Last Supper which Jesus had with his disciples before his crucifixion. During this supper, Jesus gave his disciples bread and wine and told them that, in future, the taking of bread and wine should be a commemoration of the sacrifice of his body and blood which he was about to make by being crucified.

In Shakespeare’s day, everyone in England would have been expected to attend church each Sunday, and to take holy communion regularly, especially at the great festivals of the Church such as Christmas, Easter and Whit Sunday (also called Pentecost). For further detail see Big ideas: Last Supper, communion, eucharist, mass.

The Ten Commandments

The impact of the Commandments

In Chapter 20 of the Book of Exodus in the Old Testament, the prophet Moses was given by God Ten Commandments which summed up the laws by which humans should live.

These commandments were often written up on the walls of Christian churches, thus they would be very familiar to Shakespeare’s audience.
In addition, the Ten Commandments would be recited by the priest and people during the service of holy communion held each Sunday (see Themes and significant ideas: Mass and Holy Communion).

The Commandments formed the basis of English law as well as affecting the day to day inter-relations between people. For example, casually swearing using terms referring to God (the act of blasphemy which was contrary to the third Commandment) was used by dramatists as an indicator of immorality, as was failing to set apart Sunday as a time to focus on God and take physical rest (as stated in the fourth Commandment).

Respecting parents

Commandment five is:

‘Honour thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long in the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee.’ (AV)

It was taken as a 'given' that all children were subject to their parents and should always speak respectfully to them and about them. Not to do so was to upset the Elizabethan perception of order and degree (see Chain of being) by which God maintained both the macrocosm and the microcosm).

For further information see Big ideas: Parents and children.

Murder and suicide

The sixth Commandment is:

‘Thou shalt not kill.’ (AV)

Suicide

‘Self-slaughter’ is not separately forbidden by the Ten Commandments but was held by the Christian Church to be a sin, since killing oneself is just as much taking away a God-given life as killing someone else.

Those who committed suicide were thought to have died in sin and to have offended against the laws of God. This is a key point in Shakespeare's Hamlet.

‘To be or not to be’: in Act III sc i, Hamlet muses that it is the fear of the after-life which prevents using suicide as a way to escape the miseries of the world.
We see that this view of suicide as being sinful is reflected in the words of the priest who is reluctant to give Ophelia the full rites of Christian burial, since she is thought to have committed suicide. Even the scant ceremonies she has are only because the king has so commanded:

‘Her death was doubtful,
And but that great command o’ersways the order,
She should in ground unsanctified have lodged
Till the last trumpet ...
We should profane the service of the dead
To sing a requiem and such rest to her
As to peace-parted souls'.

A pagan view of suicide

When Shakespeare sets his plays in the ancient Roman world where pagan gods are worshipped, his characters follow an altogether different moral code and set of beliefs, and suicide is seen as a noble act. In Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra, for example, to kill oneself is depicted as the duty of an honourable man. Antony, having been defeated in battle, and seeing his servant Eros commit suicide, feels that this is the right course of action:

‘Thrice nobler than myself!
Thou teachest me, O valiant Eros, what I should ... I will be
A bridegroom in my death, and run into’t
As to a lover’s bed.’

In Julius Caesar, the defeated Brutus knows that suicide is the right course of action for a noble Roman:

‘Our enemies have beat us to the pit,
It is more worthy to leap in ourselves
Than tarry till they push us …
Hold thou my sword-hilts while I run on it.’

This is a totally different view from that depicted in the Christian universe of Hamlet where suicide invites eternal damnation.

Adultery

The seventh Commandment is:

‘Thou shalt not commit adultery’ (AV).

Nowadays adultery is usually held to mean ‘the action of a married person who has sexual relations with someone other than their lawful spouse.’ However, Christian theologians extended the meaning of the term since, in the Bible, in Matthew 5:27-28, Christ points out that the desire to commit adultery is as much a sin as the act itself:

‘Ye have heard that it was said by them of old time, ‘Thou shalt not commit adultery’. But I say unto you, that whosoever looketh upon a woman to lust after her hath committed adultery with her already in his heart.’ (AV)

By this interpretation, a character may commit adultery whether or not they have sexual intercourse.

Incest

In the Book of Common Prayer (see Themes and significant ideas: Prayer) a ‘table of kindred and affinity’ was included. This laid down rules about which family members could not be married to each other:

Before the Protestant Reformation in England, (see Religious/philosophical context: The Reformation) the affinities would have included a deceased brother’s wife.
Although this prohibition was removed during Elizabeth’s reign, most of Shakespeare’s audience would still have regarded it as a prohibited relationship.

Sexual intercourse with a close family member, especially a sibling, is known as incest. Since in marriage a man and a woman were held to become ‘one flesh’, the husband or wife of a sibling would come under the same degree of relationship as a sibling.

Other Commandments

The remaining Commandments, not to steal (eighth), lie (ninth), or covet (desire) what belongs to others (tenth) were (and still are) the basis of ideal social behaviour - and failure to abide by them the source of much drama and tension in literature.

King James Version
Today's New International Version

¹And it came to pass on the second sabbath after the first, that he went through the corn fields; and his disciples plucked the ears of corn, and did eat, rubbing them in their hands. ²And certain of the Pharisees said unto them, Why do ye that which is not lawful to do on the sabbath days? ³And Jesus answering them said, Have ye not read so much as this, what David did, when himself was an hungred, and they which were with him; ⁴How he went into the house of God, and did take and eat the shewbread, and gave also to them that were with him; which it is not lawful to eat but for the priests alone? ⁵And he said unto them, That the Son of man is Lord also of the sabbath. ⁶And it came to pass also on another sabbath, that he entered into the synagogue and taught: and there was a man whose right hand was withered. ⁷And the scribes and Pharisees watched him, whether he would heal on the sabbath day; that they might find an accusation against him. ⁸But he knew their thoughts, and said to the man which had the withered hand, Rise up, and stand forth in the midst. And he arose and stood forth. ⁹Then said Jesus unto them, I will ask you one thing; Is it lawful on the sabbath days to do good, or to do evil? to save life, or to destroy it? ¹⁰And looking round about upon them all, he said unto the man, Stretch forth thy hand. And he did so: and his hand was restored whole as the other. ¹¹And they were filled with madness; and communed one with another what they might do to Jesus. ¹²And it came to pass in those days, that he went out into a mountain to pray, and continued all night in prayer to God. ¹³And when it was day, he called unto him his disciples: and of them he chose twelve, whom also he named apostles; ¹⁴Simon, (whom he also named Peter,) and Andrew his brother, James and John, Philip and Bartholomew, ¹⁵Matthew and Thomas, James the son of Alphaeus, and Simon called Zelotes, ¹⁶And Judas the brother of James, and Judas Iscariot, which also was the traitor. ¹⁷And he came down with them, and stood in the plain, and the company of his disciples, and a great multitude of people out of all Judaea and Jerusalem, and from the sea coast of Tyre and Sidon, which came to hear him, and to be healed of their diseases; ¹⁸And they that were vexed with unclean spirits: and they were healed. ¹⁹And the whole multitude sought to touch him: for there went virtue out of him, and healed them all. ²⁰And he lifted up his eyes on his disciples, and said, Blessed be ye poor: for yours is the kingdom of God. ²¹Blessed are ye that hunger now: for ye shall be filled. Blessed are ye that weep now: for ye shall laugh. ²²Blessed are ye, when men shall hate you, and when they shall separate you from their company, and shall reproach you, and cast out your name as evil, for the Son of man's sake. ²³Rejoice ye in that day, and leap for joy: for, behold, your reward is great in heaven: for in the like manner did their fathers unto the prophets. ²⁴But woe unto you that are rich! for ye have received your consolation. ²⁵Woe unto you that are full! for ye shall hunger. Woe unto you that laugh now! for ye shall mourn and weep. ²⁶Woe unto you, when all men shall speak well of you! for so did their fathers to the false prophets. ²⁷But I say unto you which hear, Love your enemies, do good to them which hate you, ²⁸Bless them that curse you, and pray for them which despitefully use you. ²⁹And unto him that smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also the other; and him that taketh away thy cloak forbid not to take thy coat also. ³⁰Give to every man that asketh of thee; and of him that taketh away thy goods ask them not again. ³¹And as ye would that men should do to you, do ye also to them likewise. ³²For if ye love them which love you, what thank have ye? for sinners also love those that love them. ³³And if ye do good to them which do good to you, what thank have ye? for sinners also do even the same. ³⁴And if ye lend to them of whom ye hope to receive, what thank have ye? for sinners also lend to sinners, to receive as much again. ³⁵But love ye your enemies, and do good, and lend, hoping for nothing again; and your reward shall be great, and ye shall be the children of the Highest: for he is kind unto the unthankful and to the evil. ³⁶Be ye therefore merciful, as your Father also is merciful. ³⁷Judge not, and ye shall not be judged: condemn not, and ye shall not be condemned: forgive, and ye shall be forgiven: ³⁸Give, and it shall be given unto you; good measure, pressed down, and shaken together, and running over, shall men give into your bosom. For with the same measure that ye mete withal it shall be measured to you again. ³⁹And he spake a parable unto them, Can the blind lead the blind? shall they not both fall into the ditch? ⁴⁰The disciple is not above his master: but every one that is perfect shall be as his master. ⁴¹And why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's eye, but perceivest not the beam that is in thine own eye? ⁴²Either how canst thou say to thy brother, Brother, let me pull out the mote that is in thine eye, when thou thyself beholdest not the beam that is in thine own eye? Thou hypocrite, cast out first the beam out of thine own eye, and then shalt thou see clearly to pull out the mote that is in thy brother's eye. ⁴³For a good tree bringeth not forth corrupt fruit; neither doth a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit. ⁴⁴For every tree is known by his own fruit. For of thorns men do not gather figs, nor of a bramble bush gather they grapes. ⁴⁵A good man out of the good treasure of his heart bringeth forth that which is good; and an evil man out of the evil treasure of his heart bringeth forth that which is evil: for of the abundance of the heart his mouth speaketh. ⁴⁶And why call ye me, Lord, Lord, and do not the things which I say? ⁴⁷Whosoever cometh to me, and heareth my sayings, and doeth them, I will shew you to whom he is like: ⁴⁸He is like a man which built an house, and digged deep, and laid the foundation on a rock: and when the flood arose, the stream beat vehemently upon that house, and could not shake it: for it was founded upon a rock. ⁴⁹But he that heareth, and doeth not, is like a man that without a foundation built an house upon the earth; against which the stream did beat vehemently, and immediately it fell; and the ruin of that house was great.

¹One Sabbath Jesus was going through the cornfields, and his disciples began to pick some ears of corn, rub them in their hands and eat the grain. ²Some of the Pharisees asked, 'Why are you doing what is unlawful on the Sabbath?' ³Jesus answered them, 'Have you never read what David did when he and his companions were hungry? ⁴He entered the house of God, and taking the consecrated bread, he ate what is lawful only for priests to eat. And he also gave some to his companions.' ⁵Then Jesus said to them, 'The Son of Man is Lord of the Sabbath.' ⁶On another Sabbath he went into the synagogue and was teaching, and a man was there whose right hand was shrivelled. ⁷The Pharisees and the teachers of the law were looking for a reason to accuse Jesus, so they watched him closely to see if he would heal on the Sabbath. ⁸But Jesus knew what they were thinking and said to the man with the shrivelled hand, 'Get up and stand in front of everyone.' So he got up and stood there. ⁹Then Jesus said to them, 'I ask you, which is lawful on the Sabbath: to do good or to do evil, to save life or to destroy it?' ¹⁰He looked round at them all, and then said to the man, 'Stretch out your hand.' He did so, and his hand was completely restored. ¹¹But the Pharisees and the teachers of the law were furious and began to discuss with one another what they might do to Jesus. ¹²One of those days Jesus went out to a mountainside to pray, and spent the night praying to God. ¹³When morning came, he called his disciples to him and chose twelve of them, whom he also designated apostles: ¹⁴Simon (whom he named Peter), his brother Andrew, James, John, Philip, Bartholomew, ¹⁵Matthew, Thomas, James son of Alphaeus, Simon who was called the Zealot, ¹⁶Judas son of James, and Judas Iscariot, who became a traitor. ¹⁷He went down with them and stood on a level place. A large crowd of his disciples was there and a great number of people from all over Judea, from Jerusalem, and from the coastal region around Tyre and Sidon, ¹⁸who had come to hear him and to be healed of their diseases. Those troubled by evil spirits were cured, ¹⁹and the people all tried to touch him, because power was coming from him and healing them all. ²⁰Looking at his disciples, he said: 'Blessed are you who are poor, for yours is the kingdom of God. ²¹Blessed are you who hunger now, for you will be satisfied. Blessed are you who weep now, for you will laugh. ²²Blessed are you when people hate you, when they exclude you and insult you and reject your name as evil, because of the Son of Man. ²³'Rejoice in that day and leap for joy, because great is your reward in heaven. For that is how their ancestors treated the prophets. ²⁴'But woe to you who are rich, for you have already received your comfort. ²⁵Woe to you who are well fed now, for you will go hungry. Woe to you who laugh now, for you will mourn and weep. ²⁶Woe to you when everyone speaks well of you, for that is how their ancestors treated the false prophets. ²⁷'But to you who are listening I say: love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, ²⁸bless those who curse you, pray for those who ill-treat you. ²⁹If someone slaps you on one cheek, turn the other also. If someone takes your coat, do not withhold your shirt. ³⁰Give to everyone who asks you, and if anyone takes what belongs to you, do not demand it back. ³¹Do to others as you would have them do to you. ³²'If you love those who love you, what credit is that to you? Even sinners love those who love them. ³³And if you do good to those who are good to you, what credit is that to you? Even sinners do that. ³⁴And if you lend to those from whom you expect repayment, what credit is that to you? Even sinners lend to sinners, expecting to be repaid in full. ³⁵But love your enemies, do good to them, and lend to them without expecting to get anything back. Then your reward will be great, and you will be children of the Most High, because he is kind to the ungrateful and wicked. ³⁶Be merciful, just as your Father is merciful. ³⁷'Do not judge, and you will not be judged. Do not condemn, and you will not be condemned. Forgive, and you will be forgiven. ³⁸Give, and it will be given to you. A good measure, pressed down, shaken together and running over, will be poured into your lap. For with the measure you use, it will be measured to you.' ³⁹He also told them this parable: 'Can the blind lead the blind? Will they not both fall into a pit? ⁴⁰Students are not above their teacher, but all who are fully trained will be like their teacher. ⁴¹'Why do you look at the speck of sawdust in someone else's eye and pay no attention to the plank in your own eye? ⁴²How can you say, 'Friend, let me take the speck out of your eye,' when you yourself fail to see the plank in your own eye? You hypocrite, first take the plank out of your eye, and then you will see clearly to remove the speck from the other person's eye. ⁴³'No good tree bears bad fruit, nor does a bad tree bear good fruit. ⁴⁴Each tree is recognised by its own fruit. People do not pick figs from thorn-bushes, or grapes from briers. ⁴⁵Good people bring good things out of the good stored up in their heart, and evil people bring evil things out of the evil stored up in their heart. For out of the overflow of the heart the mouth speaks. ⁴⁶'Why do you call me, 'Lord, Lord,' and do not do what I say? ⁴⁷As for those who come to me and hear my words and put them into practice, I will show you what they are like. ⁴⁸They are like a man building a house, who dug down deep and laid the foundation on rock. When the flood came, the torrent struck that house but could not shake it, because it was well built. ⁴⁹But those who hear my words and do not put them into practice are like a man who built a house on the ground without a foundation. The moment the torrent struck that house, it collapsed and its destruction was complete.'

King James Version
Today's New International Version

¹I beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercies of God, that ye present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable unto God, which is your reasonable service. ²And be not conformed to this world: but be ye transformed by the renewing of your mind, that ye may prove what is that good, and acceptable, and perfect, will of God. ³For I say, through the grace given unto me, to every man that is among you, not to think of himself more highly than he ought to think; but to think soberly, according as God hath dealt to every man the measure of faith. ⁴For as we have many members in one body, and all members have not the same office: ⁵So we, being many, are one body in Christ, and every one members one of another. ⁶Having then gifts differing according to the grace that is given to us, whether prophecy, let us prophesy according to the proportion of faith; ⁷Or ministry, let us wait on our ministering: or he that teacheth, on teaching; ⁸Or he that exhorteth, on exhortation: he that giveth, let him do it with simplicity; he that ruleth, with diligence; he that sheweth mercy, with cheerfulness. ⁹Let love be without dissimulation. Abhor that which is evil; cleave to that which is good. ¹⁰Be kindly affectioned one to another with brotherly love; in honour preferring one another; ¹¹Not slothful in business; fervent in spirit; serving the Lord; ¹²Rejoicing in hope; patient in tribulation; continuing instant in prayer; ¹³Distributing to the necessity of saints; given to hospitality. ¹⁴Bless them which persecute you: bless, and curse not. ¹⁵Rejoice with them that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep. ¹⁶Be of the same mind one toward another. Mind not high things, but condescend to men of low estate. Be not wise in your own conceits. ¹⁷Recompense to no man evil for evil. Provide things honest in the sight of all men. ¹⁸If it be possible, as much as lieth in you, live peaceably with all men. ¹⁹Dearly beloved, avenge not yourselves, but rather give place unto wrath: for it is written, Vengeance is mine; I will repay, saith the Lord. ²⁰Therefore if thine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him drink: for in so doing thou shalt heap coals of fire on his head. ²¹Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with good.

¹Therefore, I urge you, brothers and sisters, in view of God's mercy, to offer your bodies as a living sacrifice, holy and pleasing to God - this is your true worship. ²Do not conform to the pattern of this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind. Then you will be able to test and approve what God's will is - his good, pleasing and perfect will. ³For by the grace given me I say to every one of you: do not think of yourself more highly than you ought, but rather think of yourself with sober judgment, in accordance with the faith God has distributed to each of you. ⁴For just as each of us has one body with many members, and these members do not all have the same function, ⁵so in Christ we, though many, form one body, and each member belongs to all the others. ⁶We have different gifts, according to the grace given to each of us. If your gift is prophesying, then prophesy in accordance with your faith; ⁷if it is serving, then serve; if it is teaching, then teach; ⁸if it is to encourage, then give encouragement; if it is giving, then give generously; if it is to lead, do it diligently; if it is to show mercy, do it cheerfully. ⁹Love must be sincere. Hate what is evil; cling to what is good. ¹⁰Be devoted to one another in love. Honour one another above yourselves. ¹¹Never be lacking in zeal, but keep your spiritual fervour, serving the Lord. ¹²Be joyful in hope, patient in affliction, faithful in prayer. ¹³Share with the Lord's people who are in need. Practise hospitality. ¹⁴Bless those who persecute you; bless and do not curse. ¹⁵Rejoice with those who rejoice; mourn with those who mourn. ¹⁶Live in harmony with one another. Do not be proud, but be willing to associate with people of low position. Do not think you are superior. ¹⁷Do not repay anyone evil for evil. Be careful to do what is right in the eyes of everyone. ¹⁸If it is possible, as far as it depends on you, live at peace with everyone. ¹⁹Do not take revenge, my dear friends, but leave room for God's wrath, for it is written: 'It is mine to avenge; I will repay,' says the Lord. ²⁰On the contrary: 'If your enemy is hungry, feed him; if he is thirsty, give him something to drink. In doing this, you will heap burning coals on his head.' ²¹Do not be overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good.

King James Version
Today's New International Version

¹And seeing the multitudes, he went up into a mountain: and when he was set, his disciples came unto him: ²And he opened his mouth, and taught them, saying, ³Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. ⁴Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted. ⁵Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth. ⁶Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness: for they shall be filled. ⁷Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy. ⁸Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God. ⁹Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall be called the children of God. ¹⁰Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness' sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. ¹¹Blessed are ye, when men shall revile you, and persecute you, and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely, for my sake. ¹²Rejoice, and be exceeding glad: for great is your reward in heaven: for so persecuted they the prophets which were before you. ¹³Ye are the salt of the earth: but if the salt have lost his savour, wherewith shall it be salted? it is thenceforth good for nothing, but to be cast out, and to be trodden under foot of men. ¹⁴Ye are the light of the world. A city that is set on an hill cannot be hid. ¹⁵Neither do men light a candle, and put it under a bushel, but on a candlestick; and it giveth light unto all that are in the house. ¹⁶Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works, and glorify your Father which is in heaven. ¹⁷Think not that I am come to destroy the law, or the prophets: I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil. ¹⁸For verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled. ¹⁹Whosoever therefore shall break one of these least commandments, and shall teach men so, he shall be called the least in the kingdom of heaven: but whosoever shall do and teach them, the same shall be called great in the kingdom of heaven. ²⁰For I say unto you, That except your righteousness shall exceed the righteousness of the scribes and Pharisees, ye shall in no case enter into the kingdom of heaven. ²¹Ye have heard that it was said of them of old time, Thou shalt not kill; and whosoever shall kill shall be in danger of the judgment: ²²But I say unto you, That whosoever is angry with his brother without a cause shall be in danger of the judgment: and whosoever shall say to his brother, Raca, shall be in danger of the council: but whosoever shall say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of hell fire. ²³Therefore if thou bring thy gift to the altar, and there rememberest that thy brother hath ought against thee; ²⁴Leave there thy gift before the altar, and go thy way; first be reconciled to thy brother, and then come and offer thy gift. ²⁵Agree with thine adversary quickly, whiles thou art in the way with him; lest at any time the adversary deliver thee to the judge, and the judge deliver thee to the officer, and thou be cast into prison. ²⁶Verily I say unto thee, Thou shalt by no means come out thence, till thou hast paid the uttermost farthing. ²⁷Ye have heard that it was said by them of old time, Thou shalt not commit adultery: ²⁸But I say unto you, That whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her hath committed adultery with her already in his heart. ²⁹And if thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out, and cast it from thee: for it is profitable for thee that one of thy members should perish, and not that thy whole body should be cast into hell. ³⁰And if thy right hand offend thee, cut it off, and cast it from thee: for it is profitable for thee that one of thy members should perish, and not that thy whole body should be cast into hell. ³¹It hath been said, Whosoever shall put away his wife, let him give her a writing of divorcement: ³²But I say unto you, That whosoever shall put away his wife, saving for the cause of fornication, causeth her to commit adultery: and whosoever shall marry her that is divorced committeth adultery. ³³Again, ye have heard that it hath been said by them of old time, Thou shalt not forswear thyself, but shalt perform unto the Lord thine oaths: ³⁴But I say unto you, Swear not at all; neither by heaven; for it is God's throne: ³⁵Nor by the earth; for it is his footstool: neither by Jerusalem; for it is the city of the great King. ³⁶Neither shalt thou swear by thy head, because thou canst not make one hair white or black. ³⁷But let your communication be, Yea, yea; Nay, nay: for whatsoever is more than these cometh of evil. ³⁸Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth: ³⁹But I say unto you, That ye resist not evil: but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also. ⁴⁰And if any man will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him have thy cloak also. ⁴¹And whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain. ⁴²Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow of thee turn not thou away. ⁴³Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbour, and hate thine enemy. ⁴⁴But I say unto you, Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you, and persecute you; ⁴⁵That ye may be the children of your Father which is in heaven: for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust. ⁴⁶For if ye love them which love you, what reward have ye? do not even the publicans the same? ⁴⁷And if ye salute your brethren only, what do ye more than others? do not even the publicans so? ⁴⁸Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect.

¹Now when Jesus saw the crowds, he went up on a mountainside and sat down. His disciples came to him, ²and he began to teach them. He said: ³'Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. ⁴Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted. ⁵Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth. ⁶Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be filled. ⁷Blessed are the merciful, for they will be shown mercy. ⁸Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God. ⁹Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God. ¹⁰Blessed are those who are persecuted because of righteousness, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. ¹¹'Blessed are you when people insult you, persecute you and falsely say all kinds of evil against you because of me. ¹²Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven, for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you. ¹³'You are the salt of the earth. But if the salt loses its saltiness, how can it be made salty again? It is no longer good for anything, except to be thrown out and trampled underfoot. ¹⁴'You are the light of the world. A city on a hill cannot be hidden. ¹⁵Neither do people light a lamp and put it under a bowl. Instead they put it on its stand, and it gives light to everyone in the house. ¹⁶In the same way, let your light shine before others, that they may see your good deeds and glorify your Father in heaven. ¹⁷'Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfil them. ¹⁸Truly I tell you, until heaven and earth disappear, not the smallest letter, not the least stroke of a pen, will by any means disappear from the Law until everything is accomplished. ¹⁹Anyone who sets aside one of the least of these commands and teaches others accordingly will be called least in the kingdom of heaven, but whoever practises and teaches these commands will be called great in the kingdom of heaven. ²⁰For I tell you that unless your righteousness surpasses that of the Pharisees and the teachers of the law, you will certainly not enter the kingdom of heaven. ²¹'You have heard that it was said to the people long ago, 'You shall not murder, and anyone who murders will be subject to judgment.' ²²But I tell you that anyone who is angry with a brother or sister will be subject to judgment. Again, anyone who says to a brother or sister, 'Raca,' is answerable to the Sanhedrin. And anyone who says, 'You fool!' will be in danger of the fire of hell. ²³'Therefore, if you are offering your gift at the altar and there remember that your brother or sister has something against you, ²⁴leave your gift there in front of the altar. First go and be reconciled to that person; then come and offer your gift. ²⁵'Settle matters quickly with your adversary who is taking you to court. Do it while you are still together on the way, or your adversary may hand you over to the judge, and the judge may hand you over to the officer, and you may be thrown into prison. ²⁶Truly I tell you, you will not get out until you have paid the last penny. ²⁷'You have heard that it was said, 'You shall not commit adultery.' ²⁸But I tell you that anyone who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her in his heart. ²⁹If your right eye causes you to stumble, gouge it out and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to be thrown into hell. ³⁰And if your right hand causes you to stumble, cut it off and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to go into hell. ³¹'It has been said, 'Anyone who divorces his wife must give her a certificate of divorce.' ³²But I tell you that anyone who divorces his wife, except for sexual immorality, causes her to become an adulteress, and anyone who marries the divorced woman commits adultery. ³³'Again, you have heard that it was said to the people long ago, 'Do not break your oath, but fulfil to the Lord the oaths you have made.' ³⁴But I tell you, do not swear an oath at all: either by heaven, for it is God's throne; ³⁵or by the earth, for it is his footstool; or by Jerusalem, for it is the city of the Great King. ³⁶And do not swear by your head, for you cannot make even one hair white or black. ³⁷All you need to say is simply 'Yes,' or 'No'; anything beyond this comes from the evil one. ³⁸'You have heard that it was said, 'Eye for eye, and tooth for tooth.' ³⁹But I tell you, do not resist an evil person. If anyone slaps you on the right cheek, turn to them the other cheek also. ⁴⁰And if anyone wants to sue you and take your shirt, hand over your coat as well. ⁴¹If anyone forces you to go one mile, go with them two miles. ⁴²Give to the one who asks you, and do not turn away from the one who wants to borrow from you. ⁴³'You have heard that it was said, 'Love your neighbour and hate your enemy.' ⁴⁴But I tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, ⁴⁵that you may be children of your Father in heaven. He causes his sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. ⁴⁶If you love those who love you, what reward will you get? Are not even the tax collectors doing that? ⁴⁷And if you greet only your own people, what are you doing more than others? Do not even pagans do that? ⁴⁸Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect.

Name originally given to disciples of Jesus by outsiders and gradually adopted by the Early Church.

1. Term for a worshipping community of Christians. 2. The building in which Christians traditionally meet for worship. 3. The worldwide community of Christian believers.

Term applied to those who are not Christian, particularly followers of the classical religion of Greece and Rome and of the pre-Christian religions of Europe.

In many religions, the place where God dwells, and to which believers aspire after their death. Sometimes known as Paradise.

Jesus describes hell as the place where Satan and his demons reside and the realm where unrepentant souls will go after the Last Judgement.

1. Wisdom. 2. A decision about guilt, and / or the passing of sentence by the person presiding over a court of justice. 3. In the Bible, God's verdict on human behaviour especially on the Day of Judgement at the end of time.

This name came to be attached to the feast of Pentecost because of its being a major occasion for baptisms, where the candidates were frequently clothed in white.

Disobedience to the known will of God. According to Christian theology human beings have displayed a pre-disposition to sin since the Fall of Humankind.

In traditional Roman Catholic doctrine, an 'antechamber' to heaven, a place between Heaven and Hell, where the souls of those dead who are not damned, but not yet fit for heaven, go to be purged (purified) of their sins.

The Christian Bible consists of the Old Testament scriptures inherited from Judaism, together with the New Testament, drawn from writings produced from c.40-125CE, which describe the life of Jesus and the establishment of the Christian church.

Set apart, sacred.

Communication, either aloud or in the heart, with God.

Gospel - Literally 'good news' - used of the message preached by Jesus recorded in the New Testament. 1. The central message of the Christian faith 2. Title given to the four New Testament books which describe the life of Jesus Christ

Undeserved favour. The Bible uses this term to describe God's gifts to human beings.

1. The action of forgiving; pardon of a fault, remission of a debt. 2. Being freed from the burden of guilt, after committing a sin or crime, through being pardoned by the one hurt or offended.

A being who is not mortal ' that is, who will never die; living forever.

The spirit which gives life to a human being; the part which lives on after death; a person's inner being (personality, intellect, emotions and will) which distinguishes them from animals.

A non-physical being, or the non-physical but vital and intelligent part of a being, not limited by physical constraints.

Lasting forever, throughout all ages.

The Bible describes God as the unique supreme being, creator and ruler of the universe.

Supernatural beings closely linked with the work of God; his messengers, traditionally portrayed as having a winged human form.

Disobedience to the known will of God. According to Christian theology human beings have displayed a pre-disposition to sin since the Fall of Humankind.

The act of turning away, or turning around from, one's sins, which includes feeling genuinely sorry for them, asking for the forgiveness of God and being willing to live in a different way in the future.

Title (eventually used as name) given to Jesus, refering to an anointed person set apart for a special task such as a king.

In the context of religion, rescued or delivered from the consequences of sin.

Lasting forever, throughout all ages.

Term given to the movements of church reform which in the sixteenth century resulted in new Protestant churches being created as an alternative to the Roman Catholic Church.

1. Sometimes used to denote all Christians 2. Used specifically of the Roman Catholic church.

The name given to the man believed by Christians to be the Son of God. Also given the title Christ, meaning 'anointed one' or Messiah. His life is recorded most fully in the Four Gospels.

Also known as Satan or Lucifer, the Bible depicts him as the chief of the fallen angels and demons, the arch enemy of God who mounts a significant, but ultimately futile, challenge to God's authority.

An evil spiritual force, also known as a devil, which opposes God and seeks to separate human beings from him. In the Gospels and Acts they are portrayed as inhabiting or oppressing individuals.

The devil; the term 'Satan' actually means 'Enemy' and is often used to refer to the force of evil in the world.

Term given to the movements of church reform which in the sixteenth century resulted in new Protestant churches being created as an alternative to the Roman Catholic Church.

Undeserved favour. The Bible uses this term to describe God's gifts to human beings.

1. The action of forgiving; pardon of a fault, remission of a debt. 2. Being freed from the burden of guilt, after committing a sin or crime, through being pardoned by the one hurt or offended.

A 'testament' is a covenant or binding agreement and is a term used in the Bible of God's relationship with his people). The sacred writings of Judaism (the Hebrew Bible). These also form the first part of the Christian Bible.

A 'testament' is a covenant (binding agreement), a term used in the Bible of God's relationship with his people. The New Testament is the second part of the Christian Bible. Its name comes from the new covenant or relationship with God.

The name given to the man believed by Christians to be the Son of God. Also given the title Christ, meaning 'anointed one' or Messiah. His life is recorded most fully in the Four Gospels.

1. Instrument of execution used in the Roman Empire. 2. The means by which Jesus Christ was put to death and therefore the primary symbol of the Christian faith, representing the way in which he is believed to have won forgiveness for humankind.

1. The giving up of something deeply valued 2. Offerings a worshipper gives to God to express devotion, gratitude, or the need for forgiveness. 3. In the Bible, the sacrifice is seen to take away guilt and blame.

Literally, to 'buy back'. In Christian belief, the redemption of humanity was achieved by Jesus who in his death on the cross made a complete sacrifice sufficient to pay for the sins of the world.

Someone who tries to improve laws or institutions by instigating changes.

Martin Luther, a 16BCE monk and religious scholar and writer. A Lutheran is someone who follows the religious beliefs of Martin Luther. The Lutheran church is represented worldwide.

To admit wrongdoing. In Christian practice, confession often forms part of communal worship; in addition formal confession may be made privately to a priest.

Disobedience to the known will of God. According to Christian theology human beings have displayed a pre-disposition to sin since the Fall of Humankind.

Literally, rising to life again. In the Bible it is specifically applied to Jesus Christ's coming to life after his crucifixion; and from thence, to the hope of all believers that after death, they will be raised to a new life in heaven.

The study of God.

Communication, either aloud or in the heart, with God.

1. Doing homage and giving honour and respect, especially to God. Acts of devotion. Human response to the perceived presence of the divine. 2. The part of the Christian liturgy usually consisting of sung material and prayers of thanksgiving.

The language of the ancient Romans which gradually became the language of the part of the Christian Church which owed allegiance to Rome.

1. An act of duty and devotion. 2. By extension, a religious ceremony offering obedience and worship to God.

The title given to the bishop who oversees the other bishops within his province.

The book of prayers and church services first put together by Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury in the time of King Edward VI (1547-53) for common (ie. general) use in English churches.

The central religious service of the Roman Catholic Church, incorporating praise, intercession and readings from scripture. The central action is the consecration of the bread and wine by the priest.

An act of remembrance in which Christians consume bread and wine in the way that Jesus demonstrated at the Last Supper before his betrayal and death.

The central act of Christian worship in which bread and wine are consumed in the way that Jesus demonstrated at the Last Supper before his betrayal and death.

The Passover meal which Jesus ate with his disciples before his betrayal and arrest, at which he instituted the eucharist or holy communion or mass.

1. Term meaning learner or follower. 2. Used in the New Testament in particularly of the twelve apostles of Jesus. 3. Now applied more generally to all Christians.

Execution by nailing or binding a person to a cross.

Executed by nailing or binding a person to a cross.

'Mass of Christ', a celebration or feast of the birth of Jesus Christ.

The celebration of the Resurrection of Christ and the oldest and greatest festival of the Christian Church.

Whitsun is a traditional term for the Festival of Pentecost, the celebration of the coming of the Holy Spirit celebrated on the 50th day after Easter. This name derives from the word 'white'.

Seventh Sunday (50th day) after Easter. The Jewish feast of Weeks (harvest). In the New Testament, the day when the Holy Spirit descended upon the disciples (Acts 2).

Someone who conveys God's message to human beings or speaks about the future sometimes through words alone, sometimes through dramatic actions.

Very important Jewish leader described in the Book of Exodus in the Old Testament. Moses led the Jewish people out of slavery in Egypt to the Promised Land. Received the Ten Commandments form God.

Also called 'The Decalogue' (Ten Words). Instructions said to have been given to Moses by God on Mount Sinai, which have not only shaped Jewish and Christian belief and practice but also strongly influenced the legal systems of many countries.

A person whose role is to carry out religious functions.

Disrespect towards God or sacred things.

A theoretical view of the universe, often reflected in Shakespearean drama, in which every creature in the universe is in a hierarchical line of descent from the overall creator, God.

The bigger world or cosmos. Anything from a planet to the whole universe.

The little world, human beings and their inner world, often seen as paralleling the macrocosm.

Those engaged in the study of God.

Christians whose faith and practice stems from the Reformation movement in the sixteenth century which resulted in new churches being created as an alternative to the Roman Catholic Church.

Term given to the movements of church reform which in the sixteenth century resulted in new Protestant churches being created as an alternative to the Roman Catholic Church.

The act of sexual intercourse between persons who are seen as being too closely related to allow them to marry.

Chief of the Roman gods. (Greek name, Zeus.)

This is an example of apocalyptic literature, full of colourful imagery and symbolism. It contains seven letters to churches in Asia Minor (modern Turkey) who are commended for their zeal or criticised for lack of it. The overall message is that kingdom of God will triumph in the battle against evil and the book ends with a beautiful description of the Heavenly Jerusalem as the symbol of God's presence among humankind in a new heaven and earth.

Birth and call of Moses; Passover and deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt; giving of the law including the Ten Commandments at Sinai; God takes Israel as his covenant people; beginning of 40 years wandering in the wilderness; setting up of the Tabernacle.

The idea that a person pays back a wrong done to them with a similar wrong.